PHARMACOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF PLANT-DERIVED ANALGESIC AND ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS: A REVIEW OF AZADIRACHTA INDICA AND HOLARRHENA ANTIDYSENTERICA

Further studies are required to elucidate the pharmacokinetic parameters and the exact molecular mechanisms of these secondary metabolites to develop a standardized therapeutic guideline based on evidence from the developed research (Semwal et al., 2023, p. 1257019). In particular, incorporating pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) parameters, including maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) and area under the concentration-time curve (AUC), will be crucial to defining a therapeutic window and facilitating clinical translatability (Tie et al., 2025, p. 1657842). Additionally, investigators need to focus on long-term safety monitoring and follow rigorous reporting guidelines, including the CONSORT statement, to confirm the benefit-risk balance of these medicinal products (Wang et al., 2022, p. 154591). Future studies are also required to include standardized microscopic analysis, physicochemical evaluation, and characterization of the chemical fingerprints of these herbal products to improve the authentication and reliability of each batch and ensure consistent efficacy (Noviana et al., 2022, p. 853038). Furthermore, understanding how the plant interacts with drugs is crucial because some compounds can affect the mechanisms by which traditional medicines are metabolized, potentially impacting patient safety (Balkrishna et al., 2024, p. 39). Furthermore, it remains an urgent need to translate these promising preclinical results into proven clinical practice through well-designed randomized controlled trials (Addissouky et al., 2023, p. 61; Attiq et al., 2017, p. 768).

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